Dmitri O.Kondratiev wrote:
Monad class contains declaration
*fail* :: String -> m a
and provides default implementation for 'fail' as:
fail s = error s
On the other hand Prelude defines: * error* :: String -> a
which stops execution and displays an error message.
Questions: 1) What value and type 'error' actually returns in: error "some message" ?
For practical purposes: typechecking: every type the context asks for. execution: no value, because execution stops. For theoretical purposes, error could be implemented by error :: String -> a error msg = error msg with the extra-semantical magical side effect of printing msg and aborting execution.
2) How declaration String -> m a matches with String -> a ?
Alpha renaming to fresh variables yields String -> b c String -> d wich unifies by taking d := b c.
3) In Maybe monad: fail = Nothing
When and how 'fail' is used in Maybe monad?
The default fail implementation is not very clever. If something fails, execution is aborted and the user is confronted with some error message. Some monads support richer error handling schemes. The maybe monad encodes a succeeding computation with Just it's result, and a failed computation with Nothing. An example: -- divBy is a possible failing computation in some monad divBy :: Monad m => Int -> Int -> m Int divBy a 0 = fail "div by zero" divBy a b = return (a `div` b) -- div by three succeeds 15 `divBy` 3 :: Maybe Int ~~> Just 5 -- div by zero fails 15 `divBy` 0 :: Maybe Int ~~> Nothing -- divByAll is a shortcut for a list of divBy's divByAll :: Monad m => Int -> [Int] -> [m Int] divByAll a bs = map (divBy a) bs -- div by all returns a list of computations 15 `divByAll` [3, 0] :: [Maybe Int] ~~> [Just 5, Nothing] -- sequence succeeds if all computations in a list succeeds sequence (15 `divByAll` [3, 0]) :: Maybe [Int] ~~> Nothing sequence (15 `divByAll` [3, 5]) :: Maybe [Int] ~~> Just [5, 3] divBy, divByAll, sequence do not know anything about Maybe, they work for all monads, because they only use >>=, fail and return. The idea is that Monad defines some general interface for computations, and the various Monad instances define the exact behaviour. Maybe's behaviour is: if a subcomputation fails, the whole computation fails. There are other monads. consider the list monad, and it's behaviour: if a subcomputation fails, backtrack and try some other alternative. Tillmann