Hi George,
Appologies for taking a little while to reply. I actually finished the
game a few days after you sent your message, but was travelling last
week and away from my email.
George Russell wrote:
I have to say I'm very sceptical about things like Fruit which rely on reactive
animation, ever since I set our students an exercise implementing a simple
space-invaders game in such a system, and had no end of a job producing an
example solution. Things like getting an alien spaceship to move slowly downwards,
moving randomly to the left and right, and bouncing off the walls, turned out to
be a major headache. Also I think I had to use "error" to get the message out to
the outside world that the aliens had won.
I'm sorry to hear you had such unfortunate experiences using reactive
animation. However, I'd like to make just a few points in defense of
reactive animation (and those of us who work on such systems):
First, you don't mention which particular reactive animation system you
were using for your class. Were the problems you encountered specific
issues with the implementation you were using, or were they deeper
problems with the whole conceptual framework of reactive animation?
Since you don't really clarify what the specific problems were, it's
hard to tell.
Second, I think it's important to remember that all of the
implementations of reactive animation (and many of the other more
interesting software systems available in the f.p. community) that I
know of are essentially research prototypes in varying stages of
maturity. While negative experiences with research prototypes are
unpleasant, they also present an opportunity. If you clearly articulate
the problems you encounter it allows you or others to either (a)
conclude definitively that the underlying idea is fundamentally flawed,
or (preferably) (b) expand either the idea or the implementations to
address your specific problems. As it stands, though, your message
seems to me to be a bit like throwing up your hands and concluding that
Operating Systems are a bad idea because Windows crashed once. An
unfortunate and frustrating experience, to be sure, but it might not
justify abandoning the whole idea.
Finally, functional reactive programming, like functional programming or
object-oriented programming or any other new programming paradigm or
programming language, is really about a new way of thinking. My
experience is that when experienced programmers learn a new programming
paradigm, the new paradigm often seems disorienting, uncomfortable,
awkward and counter-intuitive at first, because it has some new or
different way of doing things that may be very different from what the
programmer is used to from previous systems. Hopefully, after enough
experience, one eventually learns to think directly in the new model,
instead of trying to transliterate every concept back into the old way
of doing things.
My suspicion is that reactive animation
works very nicely for the examples constructed by reactive animation
folk, but not for my examples.
I wonder how you would do it? A translation of the exercise I set, without the hints
we had to put in, is as follows:
[...]
Working source code for SpaceInvaders in Fruit (along with a few
screenshots) is attached to this message. The invaders randomly change
direction, bounce off the walls, accelerate as they travel down the
screen, and die when hit by a bullet, as you specified. When the game
is over, this fact and the score are overlayed on a snapshot of the game
in progress, and the user can play again by clicking the mouse.
This took me about a day to implement. Since this example is
fundamentally similar to the bouncing balls example and lots of other
games of this sort, I factored out the common code into a small (~ 125
lines) library for managing a dynamic collection of simulated entities,
much of which is copied from our "FRP, Continued" paper. The rest of
the implementation of SpaceInvaders comes out to about 400 lines of
code, the bulk of which is taken up by graphics, comments, and the data
type and projection functions for the simulation state. I found it
reasonably natural to develop the invaders and the gun as signal
functions (which can be tested and debugged independently of the rest of
the game), and I wrote functions to specify when signal functions are
added to or removed from the time-varying collection that comprises the
simulation according to the rules of the game.
If anyone is interested in actually running the code, I've made a new
release of Fruit available (at http://haskell.org/fruit ) that includes
this example in the directory "examples/SpaceInvaders".
-antony
--
Antony Courtney
Grad. Student, Dept. of Computer Science, Yale University
antony@apocalypse.org http://www.apocalypse.org/pub/u/antony
--
-- A simple implementation of a space invaders game in Fruit
--
-- Author: Antony Courtney, 06 Feb. 03
--
-- In response to a message on the Haskell GUI list
-- by George Russell of 04 Feb 2003.
module SpaceInvaders where
import Haven
import GUI
import Random
import List
import AFRPSimUtils
import GUISimUtils
-- N.B.: I'll try to develop this in a modular way from the original
-- specification, developing some individual components that can
-- be tested and reused independently of one another as much as possible.
-- Simple graphics stuff:
-- walls:
rpath :: Point -> Double -> Double -> Path
rpath pt w h = outline $ rectangle pt w h
vWalls :: Path
vWalls = rpath (point 0 0) 10 500
<++> rpath (point 400 0) 10 500
wallPath :: Path
wallPath = vWalls
wallPic :: Picture
wallPic = withColor black $ picFill wallPath
-- the outline of an invader centered at (xpos,ypos), with heading theta.
-- We'll rotate the triangle so that it points in the direction of the
-- heading:
invaderPath :: Double -> Double -> Double -> Path
invaderPath xpos ypos theta =
translate (vector xpos ypos) %$ rotate (-theta) %$
polygon [point (-15) (-10),point 15 0,point (-15) 10]
-- render invaders in red:
renderInvader :: Path -> Picture
renderInvader invader = withColor red $ picFill invader
-- First, let's construct an animation of a ship that accelerates in the
-- direction specified by accTheta.
-- Since we know that accTheta will eventually be a time-varying input,
-- we specify it as an input signal rather than a (static) argument.
simpleInvader :: Double -> Point -> SF Double Path
simpleInvader gameSpeed pt0 = proc accTheta -> do
rec -- accelerate in x faster than in y:
vx <- integral -< 3 * gameSpeed * cos accTheta
vy <- integral -< (-gameSpeed) * sin accTheta
xi <- integral -< vx
yi <- integral -< vy
let xpos = (pointX pt0) + xi
ypos = (pointY pt0) + yi
let invader = invaderPath xpos ypos accTheta
returnA -< invader
-- An executable test of simpleInvader:
invTest0 :: GUI () ()
invTest0 = proc (gin,_) -> do
inv <- simpleInvader 50 (point 250 0) -< ((-pi) / 6)
returnA -< (renderInvader inv,())
-- According to the spec, an alien is a triangular space ship that can
-- change between one of three directions at random.
--
-- We'll maintain two random signals: One will tell us whether or
-- not to change direction, and the other will tell us what the new
-- heading should be.
randomInvader :: (RandomGen g) => g -> Double -> Point -> SF () Path
randomInvader g gameSpeed pt0 = proc _ -> do
rec rs <- randomRsf (1 :: Int,100) g -< ()
changeDirE <- edge -< (rs < (round (p * 100)))
ds <- randomRsf (0,2) g -< ()
let newDirE = changeDirE `tag` (headings !! ds)
theta <- hold ((-pi)/4) -< newDirE
invader <- simpleInvader gameSpeed pt0 -< theta
returnA -< invader
where
headings = [ ((-pi) * (3/4)), ((-pi) / 2), ((-pi) / 4)]
p = 0.07 -- instantaneous probability of change in direction
invTest1 :: (RandomGen g) => g -> GUI () ()
invTest1 g = proc (gin,_) -> do
inv <- randomInvader g 20 (point 250 0) -< ()
returnA -< (renderInvader inv,())
-- Now let's make the invader bounce off of the walls.
--
-- All we need to do here is detect when we hit a wall (x position crosess
-- below left wall or above right wall) and create an impulse in the
-- acceleration (which leads to a sudden step in velocity). We'll use
-- the impulseIntegral utility signal function for this. (There is no
-- "magic" in this utility function; See Paddleball implementation in
-- Hudak's book or the fruit paper for a similar "bounce" effect).
-- The code here is copied from simpleInvader, with a few minor changes
-- to use impulseIntegral in place of integral for computing x velocity.
bounceInvader :: Double -> Point -> SF Double Path
bounceInvader gameSpeed pt0 = proc accTheta -> do
rec -- accelerate in x faster than in y:
let ax = 3 * gameSpeed * cos accTheta
vx <- impulseIntegral -< (ax, xbounce)
vy <- integral -< (-gameSpeed) * sin accTheta
xi <- integral -< vx
yi <- integral -< vy
let xpos = (pointX pt0) + xi
ypos = (pointY pt0) + yi
hitL <- edge -< xpos < 15
hitR <- edge -< xpos > 400
-- We use the velocity just before the time of impact to compute
-- the impulse:
dvx <- iPre 0 -< vx
let xbounce = (hitL `merge` hitR) `tag` (-2 * dvx)
let invader = invaderPath xpos ypos accTheta
returnA -< invader
invTest2 :: GUI () ()
invTest2 = proc (gin,_) -> do
inv <- bounceInvader 50 (point 250 0) -< ((-pi) * 0.75)
returnA -< (renderInvader inv,())
-- Now let's just use "bounceInvader" in place of "simpleInvader" in
-- the implementation of randomInvader:
rbounceInvader :: (RandomGen g) => g -> Double -> Point -> SF () Path
rbounceInvader g gameSpeed pt0 = proc _ -> do
rec rs <- randomRsf (1 :: Int,100) g -< ()
changeDirE <- edge -< (rs < (round (p * 100)))
ds <- randomRsf (0,2) g -< ()
let newDirE = changeDirE `tag` (headings !! ds)
theta <- hold ((-pi)/4) -< newDirE
invader <- bounceInvader gameSpeed pt0 -< theta
returnA -< invader
where
headings = [ ((-pi) * (3/4)), ((-pi) / 2), ((-pi) / 4)]
p = 0.07 -- instantaneous probability of change in direction
invTest3 :: (RandomGen g) => g -> GUI () ()
invTest3 g = proc (gin,_) -> do
inv <- rbounceInvader g 20 (point 250 0) -< ()
returnA -< (renderInvader inv,())
-- The player's gun, centered at the given x position:
gunPath :: Double -> Path
gunPath xpos =
outline $ rectangle (point (xpos - 15) 450) 30 20
renderGun :: Path -> Picture
renderGun gun = withColor blue $ picFill gun
gunTest0 :: GUI () ()
gunTest0 = proc (gin,_) -> do
mpos <- ginMouse -< gin
let gunPic = renderGun (gunPath (pointX mpos))
returnA -< (gunPic,())
-- Let's assemble these components into a game, using the basic
-- simulation framework provided by GUISimUtils.
--
-- Recall that, in Fruit, a GUI is just:
-- GUI a b = SF (GUIInput,a) (Picture,b)
-- Our simulation framework provides a small amount of infrastructure
-- (built around AFRP's pSwitch combinator) for simulations composed of
-- a time-varying collection of signal functions. The user needs only
-- to specify the initial collection, a signal function that specifies
-- when to add a new element to the collection, and a function (applied
-- pointwise) to determine when an element should be removed from the
-- collection.
--
-- Each simulated entity has type:
-- SimGUI a b = SF ((GUIInput,a),[b]) (Picture,b)
--
-- This is almost identical to the (GUI a b), but the input signal to
-- a SimGUI includes a [b]; this is a delayed, fed-back view of the entire
-- simulated world, which allows simulated entities to react to other
-- entities in the simulation.
-- In addition to a Picture, each SimGUI produces an output signal
-- carrying the individual GUI's contribution to the game universe,
-- collected together in the following algebraic data type:
--
data GameObject = Invader { objPath :: Path,
objKilled :: Event (), -- hit by a bullet
invLanded :: Event () -- game over!
}
| Bullet { objPath :: Path,
objKilled :: Event () -- hit an invader
}
| Gun { objPath :: Path,
objKilled :: Event (), -- never
gunFired :: Event Double
}
-- some useful auxiliary functions on GameObjects:
isGunshot :: GameObject -> Bool
isGunshot g@(Gun {}) = isEvent (gunFired g)
isGunshot _ = False
isDeadInvader :: GameObject -> Bool
isDeadInvader g@(Invader {}) = isEvent (objKilled g)
isDeadInvader _ = False
isLandedInvader :: GameObject -> Bool
isLandedInvader g@(Invader {}) = isEvent (invLanded g)
isLandedInvader _ = False
isBullet :: GameObject -> Bool
isBullet (Bullet {}) = True
isBullet _ = False
isInvader :: GameObject -> Bool
isInvader (Invader {}) = True
isInvader _ = False
bulletPaths :: [GameObject] -> [Path]
bulletPaths = map objPath . filter isBullet
invaderPaths :: [GameObject] -> [Path]
invaderPaths = map objPath . filter isInvader
hitAny :: [Path] -> Path -> Bool
hitAny paths tpath = or $ map (\p -> intersectsRect p (bounds tpath)) paths
-- An invader as a SimGUI. Note that the output signal is a GameObject,
-- and the input signal includes a list of GameObject (an observation of
-- the other members of the dynamic collection).
--
mkInvader :: (RandomGen g) => g -> Double -> Point -> SimGUI () GameObject
mkInvader g gameSpeed pt0 = proc ((gin,_),world) -> do
invader <- rbounceInvader g gameSpeed pt0 -< ()
hitGround <- edge -< pointY (rectPointA (bounds invader)) > 420
hitBullet <- edge -< hitAny (bulletPaths world) invader
returnA -< (renderInvader invader,
Invader { objPath = invader,
invLanded = hitGround,
objKilled = hitBullet
})
gun :: SimGUI () GameObject
gun = proc ((gin,_),_) -> do
mpos <- ginMouse -< gin
lbp <- ginLbp -< gin
let gunPos = pointX mpos
gpath = gunPath gunPos
returnA -< (renderGun gpath,
Gun { objPath = gpath,
objKilled = noEvent,
gunFired = (lbp `tag` gunPos)
})
-- A bullet, located at (x,y)
bulletPath :: Double -> Double -> Path
bulletPath x y =
outline $ rectangle (point (x-2.5) (y-5)) 5 10
renderBullet :: Path -> Picture
renderBullet b = withColor yellow $ picFill b
-- A simple, constant velocity bullet:
simpleBullet :: Double -> SF () Path
simpleBullet xpos = proc _ -> do
yi <- integral -< (-150)
let ypos = yi + 450
returnA -< bulletPath xpos ypos
bullet :: Double -> SimGUI () GameObject
bullet xpos = proc ((gin,_),world) -> do
b <- simpleBullet xpos -< ()
hitInvader <- edge -< hitAny (invaderPaths world) b
returnA -< (renderBullet b,
Bullet { objPath = b,
objKilled = hitInvader
})
-- And now just invoke the guiSimulator, passing as arguments an initial
-- world, a signal function that spawns new bullets, and a function to
-- determine when invaders or bullets die.
--
-- This version implements just a single invader that dies when hit
-- by a bullet:
--
basicInvaders :: (RandomGen g) => g -> Double -> GUI () ()
basicInvaders g gameSpeed = proc (gin,_) -> do
(pic,objs) <- guiSimulator_ world0 spawnsf
(isEvent . objKilled) -< (gin,())
returnA -< (pic <++> wallPic,())
where
world0 = [mkInvader g gameSpeed (point 250 0), gun ]
-- A signal function that observes the external input and the collection
-- output and produces an event when a new signal function should be
-- spliced in to the collection.
--
-- For SpaceInvaders, we examine the world for any shots fired
-- from any guns, and use this to spawn a bullet from the location of
-- the shot.
spawnsf :: SF ((),[GameObject])
(Event [SimGUI () GameObject])
spawnsf = proc (_,world) -> do
let -- spawnE :: Event [GUI () GameObject]
spawnE = maybe noEvent (\g -> fmap ((:[]) . bullet) (gunFired g))
(find isGunshot world)
returnA -< spawnE
-- A slightly more sophisticated version; here we will spawn a new
-- invader every time an invader is killed, and we keep track of score:
multiInvaders :: (RandomGen g) => g -> Double -> GUI () ([GameObject],Int)
multiInvaders g gameSpeed = proc (gin,_) -> do
(pic,(objs,score)) <- guiSimulator world0 spawnsf
(isEvent . objKilled) accScore 0 -< (gin,())
returnA -< (pic <++> wallPic,(objs,score))
where
-- let's also have a few more invaders at the start, to add to the
-- challenge:
world0 = [mkInvader g gameSpeed (point 50 0),
mkInvader g gameSpeed (point 150 0),
mkInvader g gameSpeed (point 350 0),
gun ]
-- A signal function that observes the external input and the collection
-- output and produces an event when a new signal function should be
-- spliced in to the collection.
--
-- For SpaceInvaders, we examine the world for any shots fired
-- from any guns, and use this to spawn a bullet from the location of
-- the shot.
spawnsf :: SF ((),[GameObject])
(Event [SimGUI () GameObject])
spawnsf = proc (_,world) -> do
nextypos <- randomRsf (50,350) g -< ()
let spawnBulletE = maybe noEvent (\gun -> fmap ((:[]) . bullet)
(gunFired gun))
(find isGunshot world)
spawnInvaderE = maybe noEvent
(\inv -> objKilled inv `tag`
[mkInvader g gameSpeed
(point nextypos 0)])
(find isDeadInvader world)
spawnE = mergeBy (++) spawnBulletE spawnInvaderE
returnA -< spawnE
accScore score obj =
if (isInvader obj) then score+1 else score
-- Now, let's add detection of when the game is over (due to an alien
-- succesfully landing), and an extra "gameOver" state that will nicely
-- display the user's score (over a snapshot of the Picture of the
-- in-progress game) and allow the user to restart the game.
--
-- Note that we all of this functionality is added as a wrapper around
-- multiInvaders; no cut and paste required.
--
-- We use the "kSwitch" combinator here to construct a simple state machine,
-- running the game until an invader lands, and then switching into a
-- "gameOver" GUI until the user restarts the game. kSwitch has the
-- signature:
-- kSwitch :: SF a b -- SF to run initially
-- -> SF (a,b) (Event c) -- tells us when to switch
-- -> (SF a b -> c -> SF a b) -- determines what we switch into
-- -> SF a b
--
invaders :: (RandomGen g) => g -> Double
-> GUI () (Maybe ([GameObject],Int))
invaders rgen gameSpeed =
kSwitch maybeInvaders checkLanding (gameOver rgen gameSpeed)
where
-- A lifting of the output sample to maybe type:
maybeInvaders :: GUI () (Maybe ([GameObject],Int))
maybeInvaders = proc (gin,_) -> do
rec (pic,(world,score)) <- multiInvaders rgen gameSpeed -< (gin,())
returnA -< (pic,Just (world,score))
-- A signal function to check whether any invader has
-- succesfully landed, indicating that the game is over:
checkLanding :: SF ((GUIInput,()),(Picture,Maybe ([GameObject],
Int)))
(Event (Picture,Int))
checkLanding = proc ((gin,_),(pic,Just (world,score))) -> do
let landed = any isLandedInvader world
gameOverE <- edge -< landed
returnA -< (gameOverE `tag` (pic,score))
gameOver :: (RandomGen g) => g -> Double
-> (GUI () (Maybe ([GameObject],Int)))
-> (Picture,Int)
-> (GUI () (Maybe ([GameObject],Int)))
gameOver rgen gameSpeed _ (gpic,score) =
kSwitch scoreGUI checklbp (\_ _ -> invaders rgen gameSpeed)
where
checklbp = proc ((gin,_),_) -> do
ginLbp -< gin
scoreGUI = proc (gin,_) -> do
returnA -< (scorePic gpic score, Nothing)
-- place game over message over the picture of the game:
scorePic :: Picture -> Int -> Picture
scorePic bg score =
let f_SS_b = font "SansSerif" bold 28
in (place (point 20 100) $ withColor black $ withFont f_SS_b $
(picText "GAME OVER!"
`vcomp` picText ("Your Score: " ++ show score)
`vcomp` picText "Press mouse button"
`vcomp` picText "to play again."))
<++> bg
Antony Courtney
George Russell